Mongolia, long overshadowed by its two powerful neighbors, Russia and China, is emerging as an unlikely but important player in the shifting geopolitics of Eurasia.
While Moscow and Beijing expand their influence through energy pipelines, railway links, and trilateral summits, India is steadily carving out its own place in Ulaanbaatar’s future.
Rooted in history, culture, and shared democratic values, the India–Mongolia partnership has moved far beyond symbolism. From strategic defense exercises and joint peacekeeping training to energy projects and trade discussions, the relationship is evolving into something that could alter the balance of power in Eurasia.
Trilateral Ties With China & Russia
This week, China, Russia, and Mongolia came together in Beijing for a trilateral meeting that underlined how much all three want to deepen their cooperation.
Russian President Vladimir Putin struck a familiar note, emphasizing common ground and the need for closer political, economic, and humanitarian links.
“Our three countries have much in common,” Putin said. “We share an interest in the joint development of political, economic, and humanitarian ties.”
He added that Russia was committed to building “mutually beneficial, equal and comprehensive” relations with both Mongolia and China.
For Beijing, the focus is the China–Mongolia–Russia economic corridor.
President Xi Jinping highlighted the momentum created by trilateral cooperation, not just in trade and infrastructure but also in areas like science, technology, and culture.
“These projects have given a new impetus to trilateral cooperation,” Xi said, calling the corridor central to China’s vision for the partnership.
Xi went on to stress that Beijing is ready to boost political trust with both Moscow and Ulaanbaatar. For him, the meeting was about reviewing what has been achieved so far and setting the direction for future collaboration.
The summit reinforced a message: China and Russia are determined to keep Mongolia close, binding it into regional plans that combine energy flows, infrastructure, and strategic alignment.
Mongolia At The Crossroads
Mongolia has always been defined by its geography. It sits in East and Central Asia, wedged between Russia in the north and China to the south, east, and west.
It has no coastline, making it the world’s second-largest landlocked country, yet it is also the most sparsely populated nation on earth. Vast steppes and deserts dominate the landscape, broken only by small towns and nomadic communities.
This geography has given Mongolia a unique role in world politics. It is both a buffer state and a bridge, positioned at the heart of Eurasia where great powers intersect.
For centuries, it has been a place where empires clashed, but also where trade routes like the Silk Road connected distant economies. Today, that same location has once again placed Mongolia at the center of a geopolitical contest.
Mongolia & China: Uneasy Neighbors
Despite these grand statements, Mongolia’s relationship with China has never been simple. Cultural identity and historical grievances often sit just below the surface.
One of the most sensitive issues involves Inner Mongolia, an autonomous region within China that shares deep ethnic and cultural links with Mongolia proper.
The last notable flare-up came in 2015, when Chinese state media reported an attack on a checkpoint in Inner Mongolia, calling it a “provincial border dispute.” Reports suggested the clashes involved ethnic Mongolians and residents of Gansu province, reflecting long-running tensions between minority Mongolians and the Han Chinese majority.
These disputes are not just about borders. They cut into questions of language, cultural survival, and the struggle against assimilation. While the 2015 incident did not escalate into wider conflict, it highlighted the fragility of China’s northern frontier and the watchfulness with which Mongolia views developments across the border.
Power Of Siberia 2: Energy Flows Through Mongolia
Energy and infrastructure are two of the most powerful tools being used to draw Mongolia deeper into the Russia–China orbit. The most high-profile example is the Power of Siberia 2 pipeline.
In September 2025, Russia and China sealed a major deal that could alter the global energy map. They signed a legally binding memorandum to build the Power of Siberia 2 pipeline, an ambitious project that will carry huge volumes of Russian natural gas into China.
A key part of the plan runs through Mongolia, via the Soyuz Vostok transit line. Once operational, the pipeline is expected to deliver up to 50 billion cubic meters of gas each year for the next three decades.
For Moscow, it is a way to secure a stable energy customer in Beijing. For China, it promises reliable supplies at a time when global energy competition is intensifying.
Yet, despite the announcement, several questions remain. Reuters reported that the agreement left out crucial details, such as the final pricing formula and who will bear the main construction costs.
For Russia, this is about securing a long-term market for its energy at a time when ties with Europe remain strained. For China, it guarantees reliable supplies in an era of volatile global energy competition.
But for Mongolia, the project offers both opportunity and risk. While it could bring transit revenues and new leverage, the agreement left unresolved key questions about pricing and construction responsibilities.
Rail Links Tighten The Ties
Energy is not the only way Mongolia is being drawn deeper into the China–Russia orbit. Infrastructure is playing a growing role, too.
Back in April, Mongolia’s parliament approved a deal with China to jointly build a new cross-border railway, strengthening one of the most vital connections between the two neighbors.
Construction of the Ganqmod–Gashuun Sukhait line began in mid-June, linking Ganqmod Port in China’s Inner Mongolia region with Gashuun Sukhait in southern Mongolia. It is only the second rail crossing between the two countries in almost 70 years, underscoring its significance.
The project, scheduled for completion in 2027, is backed by China Energy Investment Corporation (CHN Energy). According to company officials, the line is expected to handle about 30 million tonnes of cargo annually. Much of that will be coal, copper, and other resources moving from Mongolia into China’s industrial heartlands.
Beijing sees the railway as another step toward knitting together a vast regional transport network, one that already stretches into Russia, Vietnam, and Laos. For Mongolia, it promises new trade routes and faster access to global markets—but also highlights how tightly its economy is becoming linked to China’s.
India Steps In: A Different Kind Of Partnership
As China, Russia, and Mongolia deepen their trilateral cooperation, India has been quietly strengthening its own ties with Ulaanbaatar. Unlike the energy corridors and trade routes that dominate China and Russia’s agenda, India’s relationship with Mongolia is built on a mix of history, culture, and strategic trust.
The ties stretch back almost two thousand years, through the spread of Buddhism and cultural exchanges across Central Asia. In modern times, India became one of the first countries outside the Soviet bloc to establish diplomatic relations with Mongolia in 1955. By 1971, New Delhi had opened its mission in Ulaanbaatar, setting the stage for deeper cooperation.
The real breakthrough came in 2015, when Prime Minister Narendra Modi visited Mongolia. The trip elevated the relationship to a “strategic partnership” and tied it into India’s Act East policy. Since then, cooperation has grown across defense, energy, and diplomacy.
In 2025, as the two countries marked 70 years of diplomatic ties, External Affairs Minister S. Jaishankar spoke of identifying new areas of cooperation that would “produce a lasting impact on the future trajectory” of bilateral relations. His words reflected India’s determination to keep expanding the partnership, even as China and Russia tighten their grip on Mongolia’s economy.
Standing Together On The Global Stage
The friendship between India and Mongolia has always had an international dimension. Mongolia has consistently supported India’s push for a permanent seat on the UN Security Council and has co-sponsored important resolutions in the past. In 1972, for example, it joined India and Bhutan in backing the resolution that recognized Bangladesh’s independence.
India has also championed Mongolia’s place in global institutions, lobbying for its admission to the United Nations against resistance from China and Taiwan and helping secure its inclusion in the Non-Aligned Movement. This reciprocal support has reinforced the sense that India and Mongolia share common ground as smaller democracies navigating powerful neighbors.
Building Economic Foundations
Economic cooperation remains modest in size but significant in symbolism. The $1 billion oil refinery built with Indian assistance in Dornogovi province, inaugurated in 2022, is a striking example. With a capacity of 1.5 million metric tonnes, it is expected to cover three-quarters of Mongolia’s fuel needs, giving the country greater energy independence from Russia and China.
Coal could be another pillar of cooperation. Experts argue that Mongolia’s exports to India could help ease the difficulties of being landlocked while giving Ulaanbaatar an alternative market.
With Australia’s coal supplies to India disrupted in recent years, discussions have begun on creating a new supply line between the two countries. If realized, this would mark a major step in diversifying Mongolia’s trade beyond its immediate neighbors.
Defense: Trust On The Battlefield
Military cooperation has become one of the strongest pillars of India–Mongolia relations.
A standout example is the joint exercise ‘Nomadic Elephant’, held every year in rotation between the two countries. From May to June 2025, the 17th edition of the drill took place at the Special Forces Training Centre in Ulaanbaatar.
The exercise is more than a routine exchange; it is designed to prepare both armies for real-world peacekeeping missions under the UN framework. Soldiers train together in complex scenarios that demand coordination across cultures, languages, and operational styles.
As the Indian Army explained, the drills focus on refining tactics and learning how to operate in difficult terrains, ensuring that both forces are ready to work side by side in demanding conditions.
India’s role in Mongolia’s flagship multinational drill, Khaan Quest, has also grown. In June 2025, Indian troops joined contingents from 24 nations at the Five Hills Training Area near Ulaanbaatar. C
o-hosted by the Mongolian Armed Forces and the U.S. Indo-Pacific Command, the two-week-long exercise placed peacekeeping at its core, giving Indian soldiers the chance to train alongside partners from across the Indo-Pacific and beyond.
For Mongolia, the presence of India—and other like-minded countries—adds weight to its efforts to be seen as an active contributor to regional and global security. For India, it is an opportunity to strengthen its profile as a responsible partner in UN-led operations.
The partnership is not limited to high-profile exercises. Earlier in February 2025, India’s Border Security Force (BSF) and Mongolia’s General Authority for Border Protection (GABP) held their 10th round of director general–level talks in Ulaanbaatar.
Over six days, both sides agreed to expand cooperation in border security and conduct joint training programs.
The BSF noted that India and Mongolia face many of the same challenges when it comes to border management, from smuggling to illegal crossings. By sharing experiences and strengthening collaboration, both forces aim to enhance their frontier security.
Mongolia’s Balancing Act
For Mongolia, the challenge is clear. Its location gives it immense strategic value, but it also leaves it vulnerable to overdependence on Russia and China. The pipelines and railways promise economic benefits, yet they tighten the embrace of its two powerful neighbors.
India, by contrast, offers a different kind of partnership—less about immediate economic leverage, more about long-term trust and diversification.
This balancing act will only grow more delicate in the years ahead. Ulaanbaatar must find ways to keep its economy thriving while safeguarding its independence. For India, the opportunity lies in showing that it can be a reliable partner for a country that sits at the very crossroads of Eurasia.
- Shubhangi Palve is a defense and aerospace journalist. Before joining the EurAsian Times, she worked for ET Prime. She has over 15 years of extensive experience in the media industry, spanning print, electronic, and online domains.
- Contact the author at shubhapalve (at) gmail.com
